Table 1 Central mechanisms involved in glucose homeostasis and benefit of modulating them for diabetes management

Food entrained oscillator

Regulate feeding behaviour

(Stephan et al. 1979)

Predicting cephalic phase

↑ BAT myostatin expression

Insulin resistance

(Steculorum et al.2016)

Control of S_I

↑ Appetite

↑ G(t)

(Steculorum et al.2016)

Control of food intake

↓ Hepatic vagal tone

↓ HGP ⇔ Peripheral glucose uptake

(Shin et al. 2017; Yi et al. 2010; Scherer et al. 2011)

Control of hepatic S_I

↑ Appetite

↑ G(t)

(Billington and Levine 1992)

Control of food intake

↑ Hepatic sympathetic tone

↑ HGP

(Yi et al. 2010)

Control of hepatic S_I

↓ Sympathetic tone

↓ BAT thermogenesis

(Yi et al. 2010; Shi et al. 2013)

-

↑ Sympathetic tone

↑ WAT lypolisis

(Shin et al. 2017; Brito et al. 2007)

-

MC4R mutations

Insulin resistance

(Elmquist and Marcus 2003)

Control of S_I

Impaired insulin action

↑ WAT lipolysis

(Shin et al. 2017)

Control of S_I

↑ Appetite

↑ G(t)

(Zhang and van den Pol 2016)

Control of food intake

-

↑ Glucose uptake ↑ HGP

(Coutinho et al. 2017)

Control of hepatic S_I

↑ Glucagon ⇔ Insulin

↑ G(t)

(Shimazu and Ishikawa 1981; Stanley et al.2016; Shimazu and Ishikawa 1981)

Control of hypoglycemia

↑ Sympathetic tone

↑ HGP ↑ Tissue uptake

(Shimazu et al. 1966; Gellman et al. 1981; Coutinho et al. 2017)

Control of blood glucose levels

↓ Glutamatergic metabolism

↓ Response to hypoglycemia

(Chowdhury et al.2017)

Control of hypoglycemia

↑ Parasympathetic tone

↓ HGP

(Shimazu et al. 1991)

Control of blood glucose levels

↑ Sympathetic tone

↑ BAT glucose uptake

(Morgan et al. 2015)

Control of S_I

↑ Sympathetic tone

↑ HGP

(Fujii et al. 1989; Kalsbeek et al. 2004)

Control of hepatic S_I