Peripheral pathway | NT | Pancreatic receptor | Impact on endocrine pancreas | Impact on glucose homeostasis | Opportunities for diabetes management |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parasympathetic | ACh | Muscarinic receptors (m3AChR) | ↑ insulin ↑ glucagon ↑ β-cell number | ↓ postprandial glucose levels | Tighter control of glucose levels and preparation of the body to meals |
 | VIP, PACAP, GRP | VIP, PACAP, GRP | ↑ hormonal secretion (less studied) | - | - |
Sympathetic |  | β-cells α-adrenoreceptors | Inhibit basal & glucose-dependent insulin secretion | ↑ glucose levels | Reduction of hypoglycemia |
 | NE | β-cells β-adrenoreceptors | ↑ insulin secretion | ↓ glucose levels | Reduction of hyperglycemia |
 |  | α-cells β2-adrenoreceptors | ↑ glucagon ↑ insulin | ↓ glucose levels | Control of glucose homeostasis |
 | Galanin & NPY | Specific receptors | Great range of responses | - | - |